Introduction
Domestic violence and child abuse are distressing and deeply concerning issues that affect individuals and families worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines violence as the intentional use of force, threat, or exaggerated behavior that may result in injury, emotional disorders, or distress. In this article, we will explore the different forms of violence, as interpreted by the Domestic Violence Act 1994 (Act 521) and the Child Act 2001 (Act 611), with a particular focus on victims and the impact of violence on children.
Defining Violence
According to WHO, violence encompasses various intentional acts that result in or have a high likelihood of causing harm, injury, or distress to oneself, others, or a community. According to the Domestic Violence Act 1994, domestic violence encompasses a range of harmful acts that can occur within intimate relationships or family settings. It is essential to recognize that domestic violence is not limited to physical harm; it can also encompass emotional, psychological, and financial abuse. Here are the key acts that constitute domestic violence:
- Instilling Fear of Physical Harm: Domestic violence includes intentionally creating an atmosphere of fear in which the victim feels threatened with physical injury. This can involve verbal threats, aggressive behavior, or any actions designed to induce fear.
- Inflicting Physical Injury: Acts that result in physical harm to the victim, whether through direct physical contact or by creating circumstances where injury is likely, fall under domestic violence. It is important to note that the offender should have known that their actions could cause harm.
- Forced or Coerced Actions: Domestic violence extends to compelling the victim, using force or threats, to engage in conduct or acts that they have the right to abstain from. This includes sexual acts or any behavior that goes against the victim’s wishes.
- Unlawful Confinement: Restraining or confining the victim against their will is a form of domestic violence. This can involve physical restraint or using threats to restrict the victim’s freedom.
- Property Damage for Control: Intentionally causing destruction or damage to property with the intent to distress or annoy the victim is considered domestic violence. This tactic is often used as a means of control and manipulation.
These acts of domestic violence apply when committed by a person against various individuals within a family relationship context, including:
- Spouses or former spouses
- Children
- Incapacitated adults
- Other family members
The Child Act 2001 is a legal framework designed to consolidate and enhance the laws pertaining to children’s care, protection, and rehabilitation. This comprehensive act not only safeguards the well-being of children but also fosters a nurturing and morally upright society.
The term Child in Child Act 2001 carries a specific legal meaning that is important to know, especially when it comes to laws and regulations concerning young individuals.
- Age Definition: A child refers to a person who is under the age of eighteen years. In other words, if someone is not yet eighteen, they are considered a child in the eyes of the law.
- Criminal Proceedings: In cases involving criminal matters, the definition of a child refers to a person who has reached the age of criminal responsibility as outlined in section 82 of the Penal Code [Act 574].
Our society places a significant emphasis on protecting the well-being of children. Child Act 2001 is there to ensure that children are cared for and shielded from harm. Here are some key aspects of the laws:
- Child Abuse and Neglect: Any person who is responsible for the care of a child commits an offense if they abuse, neglect, abandon, expose, or act negligently in a way that could cause the child physical or emotional harm. This includes permitting or causing such mistreatment. Additionally, engaging in the sexual abuse of a child or allowing it to happen is also considered an offense.
- Street or Premises Activities: It is an offense for anyone to cause, procure, or permit a child (or if they have care of the child) to be on any street, premises, or place for certain activities. These activities include begging, engaging in unauthorized selling, participating in illegal hawking, lotteries, gambling, or any other illegal activities that may harm the child’s health and well-being.
- Reasonable Care and Supervision: If you are a parent, guardian, or someone caring for a child, there is a legal obligation to provide reasonable care and supervision. Leaving a child without appropriate care, for an unreasonable period, or in conditions that are unsuitable considering the circumstances, is considered an offense.
 |
 |
|
Figure 1: Example of child physical abuse
(Source: www.pioneerhouselearning.com) |
Figure 2: Example of bodily injuries sustained by a child
(Source: www.justiceforchildren.org) |
Child Act 2001 also serves to safeguard children from various forms of exploitation, including sexual exploitation and prostitution. Here’s what you need to know:
- Purposeful Exploitation: Any individual who engages in activities with the intent to exploit children for prostitution, either within Malaysia or outside the country, commits an offense. This includes selling, buying, hiring, or disposing of a child for prostitution, as well as procuring a child for sexual activities or prostitution.
- False Means and Trafficking: Using deceitful means to transport children into or out of Malaysia for prostitution is also considered an offense. This involves pretenses, misrepresentations, or fraudulent actions. Those who knowingly aid, or harbour children procured for prostitution, either within or outside Malaysia, are also breaking the law.
- Detainment for Exploitation: Detaining a child against their will in a brothel or any location with the intent to use them for prostitution or other unlawful or immoral purposes is a criminal offense.
- Advertisement and Intermediary Actions: Engaging in activities such as publishing advertisements seeking children for prostitution, acting as an intermediary in child exploitation, or hiring a child for one’s sexual gratification is strictly prohibited by law.
- Protection against Attempted Exploitation: Even attempting to commit any of the acts is considered an offense under the law.
Child Act 2001 also serves to prevent any actions that exploit or harm children. These laws are designed to ensure that children are not subject to transactions that compromise their safety or well-being. Here’s a breakdown of these principles:
-
Child Trafficking and Transactions: It is a criminal offense for any individual to engage in transactions that involve the transfer or conferment of a child’s possession, custody, or control, whether temporarily or permanently, for any form of valuable consideration. This includes situations where the purpose is to transfer control over a child’s well-being in exchange for something of value.
- Harbouring Children without Lawful Authority: Without lawful authority or valid justification, harbouring, possessing, or controlling a child whose possession, custody, or control has been transferred for valuable consideration is considered an offense. This law aims to prevent situations where children are held or controlled against their best interests and safety.
- False Pretense or Representation: Engaging in activities to bring a child into Malaysia, whether by using pretenses, misrepresentations, or fraudulent means, is an offense. This includes actions taken within or outside Malaysia that led to the unauthorized entry of a child into the country.
These laws serve as a vital shield against the exploitation of children and ensure their protection from harmful situations. By being aware of these legal principles and reporting any suspicious activities, we contribute to a society that prioritizes the safety and well-being of our children. If you encounter situations involving child trafficking or any form of child exploitation, it is crucial to notify relevant authorities or support organizations immediately. Together, we can work towards creating a safer environment for all children.
Understanding the Impact on Victims
Figure 5: Man, as a domestic violence and abuse victim
(Source:www.chaufeaudumur.hubpages.com)
Impact of Domestic Violence
-
Perpetrators and Substance Use: The primary initiators of violence were spouses or partners under the influence of drugs or alcohol, with victims rarely engaging in substance use before the incidents.
-
Self-Blame: Encouragingly, few women blamed themselves for the violence. This shift in perspective reflects a positive trend toward recognizing that they did not have to bear the blame for such abuse.
-
Severity and Injuries: A significant portion of women reported severe violence, and suffering injuries as a result.
-
Underreporting to Police: Despite the severity, a majority of women did not report the violence to the police.
-
Prolonged Endurance: The study identified a higher proportion of older women in ongoing violent relationships, implying that older victims tend to remain with their abusers, potentially due to a variety of factors including traditional beliefs and fear of being alone.
-
Duration of Abuse: The duration of violence was significantly longer for older women, suggesting that they might face unique challenges in leaving abusive relationships.
-
Mental Health Implications: Older victims faced higher rates of chronic mental health issues and were more likely to use tranquilizers and antidepressants. This points to a critical need for support and intervention for this group.
-
Childhood Impact: The study revealed that women exposed to domestic violence during childhood and adulthood experienced even more significant mental health consequences, underscoring the compounding effects of such trauma.
-
A substantial percentage of abuse begins during pregnancy, often perpetrated by the father of the unborn child, posing grave threats to both mother and child. The repercussions can be dire, potentially leading to miscarriages, disabilities, and even maternal and fetal mortality.
Exposure to domestic violence has a profound impact on children and young people, triggering a range of responses and needs that should not be generalized. It’s crucial to recognize that every individual’s experience is unique and that children possess the capacity for growth and recovery even in the face of trauma. Contrary to assumptions, not all children are permanently scarred by living with domestic violence (Mullender et al., 2002, p. 121). Some children facing domestic abuse may struggle academically, while others might excel in school as a means of escaping their challenges (Sterne and Poole, 2010, p. 23). Similarly, some students will find educational settings as sources of stability, while others may find them challenging. It’s vital to consider the diverse range of responses among children affected by domestic violence.
Domestic violence transcends age limits. Sterne and Poole (2010) highlight that the duration of exposure to domestic abuse has a more significant impact on children’s stress levels than the severity of the abuse itself. The harm caused by domestic violence encompasses physical, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and social realms, with these effects often overlapping and interconnected. While the impact spans different age groups, we will explore the effects on three approximate age brackets: young children aged 1-4, children aged 5-10, and adolescents aged 11-16. It’s important to note that individual circumstances and contexts significantly influence children’s experiences and responses. Here’s a breakdown of its impact on different age groups:
Impact on Young Children (Ages 1-4):
The impact of domestic violence on young children is significant. Research suggests that toddlers who are exposed to both intimate partner violence (IPV) and physical abuse may face difficulties in their psychosocial development (Harper et al., 2018). This exposure can lead to emotional issues, and preschool children might develop separation anxiety, especially from the non-abusive parent, often the mother. Due to their limited coping mechanisms at this early age, young children might respond to violence by disengaging both behaviourally and psychologically (Baker and Cunningham, 2009).
Certain pre-schoolers, who are sensitive to the disruptive nature of family violence, might try to block out the noise, inadvertently creating challenges for those trying to engage with them in a school environment. They may react to conflict between their parents by withdrawing, experiencing anxiety, engaging in repetitive play, displaying regressive behaviour, struggling with independence, facing sleep disturbances, tantrums, or difficulties in understanding.
Impact on Children (Ages 5-10):
Domestic violence doesn’t only impact young children; school-aged kids between 5 and 10 can also be profoundly affected. These children might develop separation anxiety due to domestic violence, which can lead to behaviours like excessive clinginess, feigning illness, or disruptive actions at school in the hope of being allowed to go home. Physically, domestic violence can result in injuries, eating issues, and stress-related conditions such as asthma (Calder and Regan, 2008).
Emotionally, the effects are noticeable through disruptions in schooling, attendance problems, difficulties focusing, sleep disturbances, withdrawal, insecurity, guilt, depression, and diminished self-esteem. Behaviourally, children in this age group might display shifts in their behaviour, show unpredictability, aggression, anger, hyperactivity, and, in some cases, even become involved in bullying (Children’s Commissioner, 2018). The trauma from the home environment can also extend to school life, causing constant fear and heightened vigilance among these children.
Impact on Young People (Ages 11-16):
As children grow into adolescents, the effects of domestic violence can become even more complex. Older kids and teenagers facing domestic violence might develop feelings of self-blame, struggle with depression, engage in self-harming behaviours, resort to substance abuse, exhibit risky behaviours, show criminal tendencies, have weak social connections, lose interest in education, and even develop eating disorders (Children’s Commissioner, 2018).
Research has shown that the impact of experiencing domestic violence can vary based on gender. Girls often internalize their struggles, which can lead to withdrawal, anxiety, and depression. On the other hand, boys, while also prone to anxiety and depression, might externalize their difficulties through aggressive or antisocial behaviour (Baldry, 2007).
Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence
When it comes to intimate partner violence, the proximity of the relationship brings a heightened risk of harm. Disturbingly, a woman is more likely to suffer injuries at the hands of her partner than from a stranger (Bachman and Saltzman, 1995). The spectrum of injuries inflicted upon victims of battering is distressingly broad, ranging from visible bruises, scratches, and cuts to more severe wounds like burns, broken bones, concussions, and even life-altering injuries to vision, hearing, joints, and internal organs. The haunting reality extends to the worst outcome: death.
Intimate partner violence carries severe health implications for victims, particularly women, but not exclusively:
- Physical Toll: Disturbingly, women and men who fall victim to intimate partner violence report injuries, often concentrated around the head, neck, or face. The toll of intimate partner violence spans a range of injuries, encompassing bruises, lacerations, burns, fractures, concussions, stab wounds, gunshot wounds, and grievous internal damage (Stark et al., 1981). Bruises and lacerations commonly are particularly common in areas like the head, face, neck, breasts, and abdomen. These victims also face a heightened risk of numerous health challenges, including asthma, gastrointestinal disorders like irritable bowel syndrome, frequent headaches, chronic pain, and sexually transmitted infections.
- Mental Toll: The toll on mental well-being is equally distressing, leading to depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, suicidal thoughts, and chronic mental illness. Following violence, victims commonly go through shock, denial, fear, and withdrawal, much like responses to other traumatic events (Burgess and Holmstrom, 1974; Walker, 1979; Browne, 1987; Herman, 1992). Victims of violence are disproportionately burdened with depression, suicidal thoughts, and suicide attempts (Hilberman and Munson, 1978; Kilpatrick et al., 1985; Stark and Flitcraft, 1988). Survivors often carry persistent psychological issues, including depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, guilt, shame, alcohol and drug abuse, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Walker, 1979; Burnam et al., 1988; Winfield et al., 1990; Herman, 1992).
- Gender Disparities: Intimate partner violence affects both men and women, but women often face more severe victimization. The consequences on women’s physical and mental well-being are striking, with three times as many women reporting poor physical and mental health when compared to those who haven’t experienced such violence. Significant differences emerge in the prevalence of negative health effects among women who have faced violence, particularly in areas like sleep disruptions, limitations in daily activities, chronic pain, and frequent headaches.
- Effects on Children: The consequences of intimate partner violence extend beyond the individual victim. Children raised in households marked by such violence suffer from psychological, social, physical, and cognitive consequences. These impacts, which include difficulties in controlling emotions and exhibiting disruptive behaviors, are partly connected to the physiological toll of ongoing stress.
- Hidden Economic Impact: Intimate partner violence extracts a hefty economic toll. Victims often experience lost productivity, missed work or school, unemployment, and unstable housing. The collective economic burden in the US is estimated to be a staggering $3.6 trillion over victims’ lifetimes.
Consequences of Sexual Violence
Rape and sexual assault are commonly seen as extremely violent acts carrying significant physical danger. Survivors of sexual violence experience deep and enduring harm, setting off a chain of health consequences. It’s important to recognize that not all survivors react in the same manner to these traumatic events. The effects can differ widely due to personal factors such as mental health history, coping strategies, and available support networks.
Vital insights reveal:
- Physical Impact: A significant number of individuals who experience rape are concerned about the possibility of injury or even death during the assault (Kilpatrick et al., 1992). Some women endure severe physical injuries (Kilpatrick et al., 1992). Sexual assault can also result in the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and, in some cases, lead to pregnancy. The risk of STD infections varies, including the potential transmission of diseases like HIV (Jenny et al., 1990).
- Profound Trauma: The aftermath of rape extends far beyond the initial incident. Survivors commonly face a spectrum of physical and psychological effects, often requiring increased medical attention (Waigant et al., 1990; Koss et al., 1991; Kimerling and Calhoun, 1994). Research consistently reveals a variety of mental health outcomes, such as depression, anxiety, substance misuse, sleep disturbances, and posttraumatic stress disorder. This impact is especially significant, with approximately half of individuals diagnosed with bipolar disorder having been victims of sexual assault.
- Increased Suicidal Risks: Survivors of sexual assault face a significantly higher likelihood of attempting suicide or completing suicides, with a startling fourfold increase compared to the general population. Furthermore, the prevalence of eating disorders more than doubles among survivors. A compelling study involving women in the military highlights the distressing reality that sexual assault triples the risk of subsequent suicide attempts, as compared to women without a history of such trauma.
- Long-Term Health Effects: Individuals who have experienced sexual assault often grapple with enduring health problems, including conditions like chronic pelvic pain, premenstrual syndrome, gastrointestinal disorders, as well as persistent pain ailments like headaches and back pain. (Koss and Heslet, 1992; Dunn and Gilchrist, 1993; Hendricks-Mathews, 1993).
- Social Response Matters: The psychological aftermath of sexual assault is significantly shaped by the response survivors receive from their social networks, the medical community, and the criminal justice system. A compassionate and supportive environment can play a pivotal role in mitigating the long-term effects of this trauma.
Impact of Child Abuse
Childhood is a critical period for development, yet some children endure the painful realities of physical and sexual abuse. Recent studies uncover the enduring consequences of these experiences, illuminating their profound effects on both mental and physical well-being.
Childhood physical and sexual abuse leaves deep and enduring marks on individuals, stretching well beyond the initial traumatic events. Multiple research findings highlight a troubling link between childhood abuse and an increased vulnerability to mental health difficulties throughout one’s lifetime.
Specifically:
- Mental Health Challenges: Children who suffer from physical or sexual abuse are at a higher risk of mental health issues throughout their lives. Research demonstrates a connection to conditions such as depression, thoughts of suicide, and even suicide attempts. This risk is particularly elevated for those who experienced abuse during their crucial developmental years.
- Substance Use and Risky Behaviour: The impact of childhood abuse extends to substance use and risky behaviours. Those who have experienced abuse are more prone to smoking, alcohol misuse, and drug use. This not only impacts their current well-being but also raises the risk of developing long-term issues related to substance abuse.
- Physical Health: Childhood abuse has surprising implications for physical health. Obesity and specific chronic conditions such as arthritis, ulcers, and migraines have been connected to a history of abuse.
- Cycle of Violence: Childhood abuse can lead to a cycle of violence. Both males and females who suffered sexual abuse as children are vulnerable to becoming victims again as young adults. Additionally, they might engage in sexual aggression themselves. This pattern also influences delinquent and violent behaviour, particularly in those who experienced childhood sexual abuse.
- Carrying Weapons and Revictimization: Disturbingly, childhood abuse also relates to carrying weapons among adolescents. Those who were physically abused as children are more prone to carrying weapons. Shockingly, childhood sexual abuse experiences contribute to about a quarter of reported weapon carrying by female youth in US. This unsettling link underscores the broader community impact of childhood abuse.
Forensic Role in Cases of Domestic Violence and Child Abuse
Clinical Forensic Examination and Victim’s Medical Care:
Medical care and clinical forensic examination are a necessity for survivors of domestic violence and child abuse. To ensure a thorough and sensitive approach, the following steps should be taken:
- Accompaniment by a Police Officer:
A police officer should accompany the victim to the hospital to maintain evidence continuity and coordinate with ongoing investigations. - Explanation of Clinical Forensic Examination:
The police officer must explain the reasons for the clinical forensic examination to the victim, ensuring they understand the purpose and procedure. - Obtaining Informed Consent:
Forensic Medicine Specialists should obtain consent from the victim, ensuring they are fully informed and have the mental capacity to provide consent. - Providing Gender Preference:
Efforts should be made to accommodate the victim’s gender preference for the examining doctor. If this is not possible, the victim should be informed. - Handling Cases Involving Multiple Victims:
When multiple victims are involved in the same case, it is essential to assign different Forensic Medicine Specialists to examine them separately. However, if this is not feasible, a rigorous process of cleaning must be followed to prevent cross-contamination of evidence. - Cross-contamination Prevention Protocols:
In situations where multiple victims are involved, Forensic Medicine Specialists must replace used disposable items and equipment with fresh ones for each subsequent examination. This precautionary measure is essential to avoid any cross-contamination of evidence. Forensic medicine specialists must change their Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) between examinations to avoid contamination. - Maintaining Examination Room and Equipment:
Trained medical personnel are responsible for maintaining the cleanliness and integrity of the clinical forensic examination rooms and equipment, ensuring a safe and reliable environment for the examinations.
Obtaining Informed Consent in Clinical Forensic Examinations
Consent is a fundamental ethical principle in clinical forensic examinations for domestic violence victims and child abuse survivors. It ensures respect for the autonomy and dignity of individuals involved while upholding their rights during the examination process. The process of obtaining consent is dynamic and requires careful attention to various considerations.
Here are key points to understand regarding consent:
- Fully Informed and Capacity to Give Consent:
Consent must be obtained from individuals who are fully informed about the examination process, its purpose, potential risks, and benefits. The victim must also have the mental capacity to give consent, understanding the implications of their decision. - Ongoing and Revocable Consent:
Consent is not fixed; it is an ongoing process. At any point during the examination, victims have the right to withdraw their consent. Forensic professionals must respect this right and stop the examination if requested. - Witnessed and Signed Consent:
Consent must be witnessed and signed by the patient, confirming their willingness to undergo the examination voluntarily. In the case of child abuse, the involvement of a Child Protection Team officer is crucial. Additionally, if parents or guardians are present, their signatures may be obtained as well. - Involvement of Medical Officers or Forensic Medicine Specialists:
Qualified medical officers or forensic medicine specialists should be responsible for obtaining consent, ensuring that victims understand the process and feel comfortable.
General Physical Examination
A thorough physical examination is a critical component of clinical forensic investigations for domestic violence and child abuse victims. The examination process involves preventive measures to avoid evidence contamination and meticulous documentation of findings. Below are essential aspects of the physical examination:
- Preventive Measures:
To maintain the integrity of evidence, preventive measures are implemented to prevent contamination. Proper Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is worn by the forensic examiner, and stringent hygiene practices are followed throughout the examination. - Head-to-Toe Examination:
The physical examination begins with a systematic head-to-toe approach. This ensures that no injuries or evidence are missed and provides a comprehensive assessment of the victim’s condition. - Clinical Forensic Samples:
Clinical forensic samples are taken as necessary during the examination. These samples may include body fluids, skin swabs, or any other relevant evidence that can help in identifying the assailant or corroborating the victim’s account. The swab technique is commonly used to collect body fluid samples. A cotton swab moistened with sterile water is used to gently collect any evidence from the identified region. A second dry swab is then used to remove any remaining body fluids, ensuring accurate sample collection. - Evaluation of Physical Trauma:
The physical examination includes a meticulous evaluation of non-genital physical trauma. This may encompass injuries such as mouth trauma, sores, hematoma, abrasions, bite marks, impressions from kicks, hand tie marks, tape ties, and apparent strangulation marks. - Detailed Documentation:
A Forensic Medicine Specialist is responsible for documenting all findings in detail. Every aspect of the examination, including observations of the victim’s behavior and emotions, is recorded. As individuals respond differently to stressful situations, these observations can be crucial in the investigation. Negative findings, which indicate the absence of specific injuries or evidence, are equally important and should be documented. These details contribute to a comprehensive assessment of the victim’s condition. To accurately record injuries sustained by the victim, forensic experts often use human diagrams. These diagrams provide a visual representation of the location and nature of the injuries, aiding in their description and interpretation during legal proceedings.
Promoting Awareness and Support
Combating domestic violence and child abuse requires a comprehensive approach, involving awareness, support, and effective practices. By understanding the impact on victims, especially children, and the role of professionals in caring for survivors, we can work towards creating a safer and more compassionate society. Collaboration between various stakeholders is essential to provide effective support and justice to those affected by these heinous acts under the purview of Act 574 of the Penal Code.
- Access to Resources:
Many victims learn about legal resources and find support through domestic violence shelters. These shelters offer education about the cycle of violence and essential community resources. - Raising Awareness:
Recognizing the impact of domestic violence and child abuse is the first step toward change. Widespread awareness campaigns and community initiatives can play a pivotal role in addressing this pressing issue. - Early Intervention and Support:
Timely intervention is crucial. Programs aimed at preventing domestic violence and offering support to victims and their children can break the cycle of trauma, providing a path toward healing. - Healthcare Providers’ Role:
Social workers and healthcare professionals play a crucial role in identifying and addressing domestic violence in all age groups. Routine assessment and education are key to helping victims receive the support they need. - Tailored Support:
Creating support groups and counseling programs specifically for victims of domestic violence can provide them with the resources to break free from the cycle of abuse. - Empowerment:
It is imperative to recognize that domestic violence knows no age limit. Efforts must be intensified to make victims visible so they can access the assistance required to lead violence-free lives. - Policy Reforms:
Governments and institutions need to prioritize the safety and well-being of victims. Policies should ensure access to counseling, safe spaces, and legal support for those impacted by domestic violence.
Conclusion
Domestic violence and child abuse are grave issues that demand urgent attention and action from society. By understanding the different forms of violence, recognizing victims, and prioritizing support for affected individuals and families, we can strive to create a safer and more compassionate environment for everyone. Only through collective efforts can we hope to eradicate violence and build a better future for generations to come.
References
- Devaney, J. (2015). Research Review: The Impact of Domestic Violence on Children. Irish Probation Journal, 12, 79-94. http://www.probation.ie/website/probationservice/websitepublishingdec09.nsf/Content/Irish+Probation+Journal+2015+Years
- Horwitz, A. V., Widom, C. S., McLaughlin, J., & White, H. R. (2001). The Impact of Childhood Abuse and Neglect on Adult Mental Health: A Prospective Study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42(2), 184–201. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090177
- Lloyd M (2018) Domestic Violence and Education: Examining the Impact of Domestic Violence on Young Children, Children, and Young People and the Potential Role of Schools. Front. Psychol. 9:2094. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02094
- National Policing Improvement Agency 2008, Guidance on Investigating Domestic Abuse, United Kingdom.
- National Research Council. 1996. Understanding Violence Against Women. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/5127.
- Recent Rape/Sexual Assault: National Guidelines on Referral and Forensic Clinical Examination in Ireland 3rd edition 2014.
- Rivara F, Adhia A, Lyons V, Massey A, Mills B, Morgan E, Simckes M, Rowhani-Rahbar A. The Effects of Violence on Health. Health Aff (Millwood). 2019 Oct;38(10):1622-1629. doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.2019.00480. PMID: 31589529.
- Undang-Undang Malaysia, Akta 521, Akta Keganasan Rumah Tangga 1994.
- Undang-Undang Malaysia, Akta 611, Akta Kanak-Kanak 2001, Pindaan Januari 2006.
- Wilke, D. J., & Vinton, L. (2005). The Nature and Impact of Domestic Violence Across Age Cohorts. Affilia, 20(3), 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109905277751
| Last Reviewed | : | February 2024 |
| Writer | : | Hafiz bin Rommali |
| Reviewer | : | Nurazira binti Azizan |
