• Exposure to toxins (e.g. tobacco, alcohol) in pregnancy
• Genetic tendency to psychiatric disorder
• Head trauma
• Lack of oxygen to the brain at birth
• HIV infection
• Malnutrition

• Age-appropriate physical development
• Good physical health
• Good intellectual functioning

• Learning disorders
• Sexual, physical & emotional abuse and neglect
• Difficult temperament
• Maladaptive personality traits

• Ability to learn from experiences
• High self-esteem
• High level of problem solving ability and shielding factors
• Good social skills

Family

• Inconsistent care-giving
• Family conflict
• Poor family discipline
• Poor family management
• Death of a family member

• Healthy family relationship
• Opportunities for positive involvement in family
• Rewards for involvement in family

School

• Academic failure and drop out
• Inappropriate school environment

• Good school grade
• Healthy and friendly school environment

Community

• Community disorganisation
• Discrimination and marginalisation
• Exposure to violence

• Connectedness to community
• Opportunities for constructive use of leisure
• Positive cultural experiences
• Positive role models
• Connection with community organisations including religious organisations